The Art of Diplomacy in a Mediterranean Kingdom: Sicily and Beyond

In the winter of 1137–38, a letter sent by the Fatimid caliph al-Ḥāfiẓ to Roger II, King of Sicily, refers to Abū Manṣūr Ja‘far al-Ḥāfiẓī as “the bearer of this response, renowned for his suitability for the task, praised as one who performs his assigned duty with due competence and reliability. He has been instructed on what he must mention and explain, and reliance is placed upon him for the matters he will clarify and convey in person, through direct speech.” Diplomacy is, indeed, an art that demands skill, tact, and refinement. It entails navigating complex relationships, negotiating agreements, and resolving conflicts in ways that respect the interests and perspectives of all parties involved. The four core principles of diplomacy – negotiation, communication, relationship-building, and the promotion of interests – collectively constitute the foundation of effective diplomatic practice. These principles are interwoven and operate in harmony to enable successful diplomatic engagement. In the case mentioned above, the art of diplomacy thus involves not only written correspondence but also oral communication – viva voce – entrusted to the reliability and discretion of an ambassador. The present study aims to investigate certain communicative strategies underpinning the art of diplomacy as practiced within the Kingdom of Sicily, a realm situated at the heart of the Mediterranean. Throughout its long chronology (1130–1412), the kingdom maintained diplomatic relations with all major political actors of the Mediterranean world, and particularly with Islamic polities. Such interactions exemplify how cross-cultural diplomacy served not only pragmatic political purposes but also fostered mutual understanding, intellectual exchange, and enduring cultural connectivity across the Mediterranean. In attempting to reconstruct this multilingual and multicultural context, the analysis will focus on the strategies employed by chanceries and written texts, as well as by ambassadors, translators, and interpreters active over the longue durée within the Sicilian setting.