Crops, Cropping Systems, and Agricultural Continuity in the Byzantine Empire ca. 500-1453 CE

This study examines the major crops and cropping systems of the Byzantine Empire from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries CE, focusing on agricultural continuity and change. Farming was the backbone of the Byzantine economy, sustaining at least 80% of the population throughout the empire’s history. By integrating textual sources, such as the Geoponika, with recent archaeobotanical and isotopic data, the chapter explores how environmental constraints and cultural preferences shaped agrarian practice in core territories like Anatolia and Italy. Cereals, specifically naked wheats and barley, provided the vast majority of caloric intake. Ancient hulled wheats like einkorn and emmer survived as niche crops in specific regions like Byzantine Italy, free-threshing varieties (bread and durum wheat) dominated the imperial diet. Barley maintained its status as a vital staple due to its environmental resilience and use as animal fodder, despite its lower social status. The study also highlights the role of “minor” grains—including millet and rye—revealing their importance as strategic hedges against crop failure and their prevalence in specific regional and chronological contexts. Ultimately, the paper situates Byzantine agriculture within the broader transformations of the medieval Mediterranean and European worlds.